PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS OF THE DESCENT OF MAN : October 2017

3rd Academic International Conference on Social Sciences and Humanities & 3rd Academic International Conference on MultiDisciplinary Studies and Education

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31-AW21-5248

THREE LEAPS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION

OKTAY KAYNAK

ABSTRACT

Bipedalism:

As a result of the rift and plateau formation in East Africa 6-7 mya, a primate made an adaptive response to this development. And this primate hunted and gathered food in shallow waters on two legs. This shallow water made a selective pressure on that primate to walk bipedally.

Mental Overturning:

When about 2 mya the body erection reached a certain angle, the embryo made an adaptive response to this vertical body. The embryo turned upside down. This is the mental overturning that started the growth of the cranium as well as the brain.

Mental Threshold:

After chasing its enemy, the chimp throws a stick and stones. It does not say to itself: ''This stick and stones have served me effectively; I’d better keep them for another occasion''. However, there will be a time when such a thought will occur with the development of the brain capacity (500-550 cc).

Key Words: human evolution, mental overturning, mental threshold, anthropology

INTRODUCTION

Initially, the science of anthropology intuitively linked the bipedalism of the human species to its intellectual capacity. As the fossils and bones of the australopithecine started to be discovered, subsequent work and research continued to support the initial intuitive assumption. The mechanism of evolution for all species can be explained as small changes in the environment and habitat creating selective pressures on the organism and the organism giving an adaptive response to these events. As these changes accumulate over a long period of time, speciation occurs. This is how science explains the process of evolution; however, such an explanation regarding the evolution of human beings has not, until now, been satisfactory.

This is because of the following reasons: Human beings are different when compared to other species on earth but the same process of evolution has been assumed to apply to both human and all the other species. Human lineage separated from a common ancestor about 6 mya, and the mechanisms of natural selection resulted in forming the modern human.

Human beings are very special and very different. These are the only living being on earth that engages in self-investigation. Then, one can ask whether the evolution processes regarding human beings is only specific to this species; my answer to this question is “yes”. This human species had to experience three consecutive and important leaps before becoming the modern human.

1- The Leap of Bipedalism

Being bipedal and growth of brain are two fundamental facts in human evolution. For many years, researchers have put forward various theses on how these two changes in human evolution have taken place. Theoretical discussions aimed to find answers to the basic questions that have a highly significant influence in the development of a science. The subject of this article is to explain the reasons for becoming bipedal and the growth of the brain in human evolution. I will comment, from an ecological viewpoint, bipedal development of human beings, and I will explain the growth of the human brain from a completely new perspective and through a hypothesis based on embryonic development. My aim is to clear the way to apply this new perspective to the discussions in the world of palaeoanthropology on these subjects.

Water has existed in the Rift Valley since the rift was formed in Africa 8-10 mya, and this has been proved by the existence of dried lake bottom sediments and the abundance of fresh water lakes in the region. Huge carbonated lakes, such as the Lakes Victoria and Lake Turcana called “Green Sea” by the local population, are found throughout the Rift Valley. The main reason of this formation is the tectonic separation zones that resulted in the rift depression. These tectonic separation zones caused the formation of many volcanoes, underground water came up to the earth’s surface, and lava and volcanic ash fell on the existing equatorial forests. These changes resulted in forest fires. These forest fires have to be associated with the nonexistence of equatorial forests to the east of the Rift Wall. Volcanic movements of important dimensions, flood of hot and cold underground waters, great earthquakes and forest fires changed the environment ecologically and food availability. In these circumstances, it is interesting that our predecessor, the arboreal primate, survived perhaps in a very specific and small area. To survive, food, shelter, defence against predators, and reproduction is necessary; otherwise, life cannot be maintained and the species will disappear. Our predecessor primate continued an arboreal life for a time in a small area that was not affected by fire and tried to solve the problem of food by eating fruit, leaves, branches, and the bark of trees. Although there had been fires in the forest and volcanic ash had rained down on the soil, there was water in the rift that had been created in the tectonic activity. These primates fed on aquatic plant products and by walking in the water in upright position, they were able to breathe by keeping their heads above the surface of water. Most probably, the primates at that time met with various aquatic plants, crustaceans, and fish. Long-tailed macaques living today along the Ketanbe River to the north of Sumatra Province of Borneo Island of Indonesia take fish from the river with their hands and this is evidence of primates solving their feeding problem by fishing. This has been observed and documented by The Nature Conservancy and The Great Ape Trust (Stewart et al. 2008).

For 4-5 my, primates lived in a semiarboreal–semiaquatic way but that does not mean that they were amphibious. These primates would have spent the nights on semi-blasted tree trunks, a small piece of raised land or in trees, and in the daytime, they would have walked erect on two legs in shallow waters foraging or hunting for aquatic sources of food. This aquatic period in the evolution process of human beings is advocated particularly by Sir Alister Hardy (Hardy, 1960). Marine zoologist Hardy finds similarities between human, whales and dolphins in nakedness and existence of subcutaneous fat tissues. Aquatic mammals such as sea cow (Sirenia) and eared seal (Otariidae) resembles human beings due to various characteristics; for example, these mammals are hairless and their subcutaneous fat tissues are attached to their dermis. This is the same for human beings but for land animals, the subcutaneous fat tissues are attached to the muscular tissue. Nevertheless, Hardy’s comparison is not accepted because there is no clear knowledge about primate aquatic life. Furthermore, descriptions of the aquatic life of primates are incorrect because they are likened to the life forms of penguins and dolphins. If primates had solved the feeding problem through swimming or diving as dolphins or penguins, they would have had a web formation between their foot fingers. Hardy alleges that the head of a primate is hairy and body is naked because their head is kept above the surface of the water when swimming. However, I suggest that our predecessor primate solved feeding problem by walking in the shallow water, rather than swimming and diving. In my opinion, the head of a primate is hairy because the head is held above the surface of water, and the body is hairless due to the body being in the water when hunting or foraging.

The evidence supporting my suggestion is:

1. The Rift Valley is full of both lake sediment and lake-bottom sediment.

2. Australopithecus afarensis suffered from rheumatoid arthritis.

3. The argument that the Australopithecus afarensis family of 13 members suffocated in water.

4. The human body is hairless and head is hairy due to keeping it above the surface. Darwin stresses in his The Origin of Species that the thesis put forward by a researcher named Mr. Belt that human lost their hair in order to remove parasites is wrong because, Darwin continues, many four-footed living beings in tropical countries did not react to the same factor as others did. On the other hand, says Darwin, if we suppose that we lost our hair in order to adjust our body temperature to the conditions of a tropical region, we cannot explain our hairy head in spite of its permanent openness to the sun, and this a paradox (Darwin, 1996). Keeping body in water and head above the surface of the water due to the necessity of breathing can explain the hairless body and hairy head.

5. Most of the Australopithecine fossils have been found at the site of an old dried lake or on riversides together with fossils of shallow and deep-water beings such as hippopotamus and diatoms. Additionally, the presence of fossils of remnants of equatorial forests in the sediment of the same age shows that our predecessor primate lived in equatorial forests. All living beings have ways of keeping their body temperature between certain levels generally through hair and subcutaneous fat tissues. It is widely known that when certain animals such as dolphins and whales moved from the land to the sea, they replaced the hair they had lost with subcutaneous fat tissues in order to balance their body temperature (Mayr, 1998). The subcutaneous fat tissue of human beings are the consequence of life spent in water for 4-5 my.

6. Laetoli footprints found in Tanzania are the footprints of two Australopithecus walking erect side by side on the ash layer spewed out by a volcano which had cooled and been softened by rain water (Johanson and Edey, 1990). In my opinion, the lava had to be fresh and cool for the formation of these footprints, and this can be happen when there is water. My argument that these footprints are on a volcanic material that had fallen on the lake recently has to be taken into account.

The hypothesis of erecting in water mentioned above can be tested as follows: Let us assume a lake with sufficient dimensions for a chimp colony to easily live in and a sufficient depth to force the chimp family to adopt an erect position, namely 70-120 cm. The lake has to be in a tropical area like the Rift Valley; thus, chimps can easily live there in the winter. Floating trays on the surface of the lake carry fruits, such as bananas, which are chimps’ favourites. The fruits are placed at appropriate points that can be easily seen by the chimps. This design will force the chimps to stand erect on their hind feet and walk towards their favourite fruit. Later, frogs, crabs and fish are put in the lake and after determining their favourite fish, a meeting between chimps and fish will be organised. If this experiment continues for four or five generations, we will observe that the chimps will become erect in order to feed on aquatic products; thus, they will survive and reproduce. Additionally, we will observe that the chimps solve their feeding problem by keeping their body in the water and their heads above the surface of the water and the beginning of hairlessness on their bodies (Kaynak, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2013a, 2015, 2017). Today, a discussion continues on whether the origin of a new species is mutational or due to recombinational changes in the genetic inheritance or environmental changes. The mechanism of natural selection is explained below. When the conditions change in the living space of a species that prevent it from surviving, the variations in the genetic inheritance of the same species that provide adaptation to the new conditions are selected. In other words, newborn individuals which carry the positive mutational or recombinational genetic changes that make the adaptation of the species possible to the new conditions are selected. If a newborn child (variety) of the species in question carrying these inheritable genetic changes do not exist, the population cannot adapt itself to new conditions and consequently disappear. The adaptation of a certain species to the new conditions needs two factors. First, the existence of mutational or recombinational inheritable genetic changes according to the new conditions is necessary for the survival of the species. Second, the natural selection mechanism must operate in way that it selects the appropriate individuals. A species suited to the new conditions appears in such a mechanism. The differentiation and separation of human genetic arrays date back 6-6.5 my. It is not easy to calculate how many million years for the human bones to change in order to permanently adopt an upright position. The upper body was forced to become hominid after the lower body became hominid in 4-5 my. This occurred because only a double carrier skeleton system as in modern humans can allow the living being to survive. For the axis of gravity of the carrier skeleton to be in the soles of the feet, the body has to take an upright posture, the rib has to become cylindrical, and the head must be placed over the body like human beings of today.

2- The Leap of Mental Overturning

Unfortunately, the upright position and the angle of vertebra femur cannot be discerned in Australopithecus fossils because this angle is destroyed during the fossilization process; however, we have been erect on two feet for 4-5 my. At this point, the question arise; although the primate are walking on two feet for 4-5 my, why the brain of the primate did not grow? This question is asked because the pelvis structure on Australopithecus fossils has been ignored and yet, the pelvis of Australopithecus is somewhere within in the range of evolution between the pelvis of a primate and a contemporary human being. All the Australopithecus’s bones, from the toe to the ilium bone of the pelvis, resemble the contemporary human being except for the angle of the vertebra pressing on the pelvis and ilium bone of pelvis. The Australopithecus’s upper body, vertebra structure, skull and the shape of jaw are like a primate. In other words, the process of resemblance started with the toe and ended with the jaw and skull. Scientists have taken this resemblance into consideration and intuitively found a relation between upright position and an intelligent living being. Everything started with adapting to an erect position and this started with the toe.

The position of the embryo in the uterus changed at a certain phase of the gradual process of the body becoming erect. The Australopithecus embryo turned its head towards the mother’s diaphragm and its body came close to the birth canal after turning a 180° somersault in the uterus. Without this somersault, which I call mental overturning, Australopithecus would have kept its head turned towards the birth canal. After this mental overturning, each prospective mother Australopithecus started to give birth to offspring which had a skull that was larger than mother’s. This increasing size of the Australopithecus’s skull has also been seen in the fossils while other changes cannot be observed. Due to the gradual process of the erection of the body, the rib narrowing and becoming cylindrical cannot be discerned (Kaynak, 2007, 2012b, 2013c, 2015 2017). Different skulls of Australopithecus led some to conclude that there are different species of the Australopithecus. However, these are not different species; rather, they are Australopithecus generated through body erection and rib narrowing. The most important result of mental overturning is that offspring started to be born with their face towards one of the legs of the mother (Trevathan, 2011). Yet, after the completion of the body erection, offspring started to be born with the face towards the back of the mother which is a characteristic of contemporary human beings (Rosenberg and Trevathan, 2001). This is peculiar to human beings since all the other mammals are born facing the abdomen of the mother. The reason for this important difference is mental overturning. This weakness that starts with birth forces the offspring to adopt a semi-terrestrial life. The offspring primates cling to the hair of their mothers just after birth. The origin of the human babies grasping whatever is held out to them is a reflex that has to be connected with the infant of the primate that clings to the hair of mother. The offspring of a primate clings to the mother for survival because it is born in a nest in a tree. In anthropoid fossils, skull volumes of 400 to 800 cc have been found. The increase in the skull volume starts to correspond to the body erection angle. After the body erection process begins, the skull volume continues to change till the angle of vertebra femur reaches 180°. One has to pay attention to the fact that the skull volume determines the quantity of brain tissue (Kaynak, 2014).

The development of the erect position freed the hands of primates to produce tools and consequently, primates were regarded as intelligent beings. A coordination exists between the front and rear extremities of contemporary chimps. Their hands are free and they can use their hands; however, they are not intelligent living beings. According to another thesis, chimps are intelligent living beings because they became social after being erect on two feet. They can face each other and have developed speech (Mayr, 1998). Yet, Darwin stressed that some other living beings can be face to face and had various organs which allow them to produce speech but they cannot speak. For Darwin, the skill has to be developed in order to produce speech (Darwin, 1996, 2002).

The human embryonic skull develops and takes its shape and form in conformity with internal and external vectoral forces that affect the skull. These forces can be explained as:

1- External forces: gravity, pressure of the uterus and amniotic sac, pressure of abdomen muscles of the mother, pressure of diaphragm and other internal organs of the mother.

2- Internal forces: gravity, resistance of the intra cranial fluids, and brain tissues coming into existence.

Today, science suggests that the human embryo skull develops, takes its shape and form in conformity with these vectoral, internal and external forces. The existence and development process of a human embryo skull is not similar to the release of a coil spring (Blechschmidt, 2003, 2004). My opinion is that the impetus and direction of these vectoral forces changed as the body gradually became erect. Consequently, the volume of the Australopithecus’s skull corresponds to different phases of body assuming the perpendicular angle during the process of becoming erect (Kaynak 1983, 2007, 2010, 2012a, 2013b, 2017). The increase of the skull volume continued until the body took the fully-upright position. Some changes occur on the shape of the skull of the child taken out during birth by forceps or by vacuum technique. In an experiment, one side of the cervical muscles and / or chewing muscles or both cervical muscles and chewing muscles of newborn rats and rabbits were removed. It was observed that while the non-operated half of the skull of these animals developed normally and specific to the species, in the part of the next skull from which the cervical and chewing muscles were cut out, the metacarpus did not develop; in other words, this part of the skull developed in a different form.

The adult human body is 70% water, and more than 90% of the embryo in the uterus is water. The bones can be warped, and they stretch but they do not break. When a pressure exerted in one direction from any angle on the skull of an embryo of four or five months, it is expected that the skull would be deformed in conformity with the direction of the pressure. Since deformations are not observed on the skull in the uterus, it is understood that the embryo is packaged and bundled by the uterus. A very young human baby cannot keep hold her head; however, due to the design of the uterus, the embryo can keep its head exactly over the body. At seven months, the foetus turns upside down in preparation for birth, and in this position, the body is kept over the head. It is this mechanism that causes the human skull to become round, the jaw to become small, the arch of the eyebrows to straighten, and the skull volume to increase. Unlike other animals, the human baby is born without synostosis having soft spots called fonticulus between the skull bones. This that means human bone and tissue development cannot respond to the human embryo skull development, and the growth of the skull process is faster than tissue formation. Since the rib cage has been transformed from a conical to a cylindrical shape, the abdominal region has narrowed and the human uterus cannot enlarge; consequently, the process of birth begins with uterine contractions. In other words, the foetus is born without completing its development. This is only observed in the human uterus and human embryo.

We can conclude, as a result all of these, that the human uterus is unique among mammals and produces a distinct living being because of its own uniqueness. The Australopithecus has a great jaw, protuberant eyebrow arch together with a small skull. It is not possible for both a large skull and a great jaw with a protuberant eyebrow arch to exist in the Australopithecus. I, at this point, come to the conclusion that the gradually diminishing jaw and straightening eyebrow arch were replaced with great skull. This development was created by the uterus in the female human, which gradually adapt herself to being erect. Here there are questions to be raised: Does the jaw diminish and does the skull grow simultaneously or in parallel with each other? Could the skull grow and could the jaw keep its size? No, the skull would have not be able to grow when the jaw continues to be of a large size because this change is generated by the uterus, and the human uterus should not be overstretched but should allow the embryo to assume its natural shape. The human uterus pushes the embryo backward by pushing the incisors seen at the extreme point of the primate skull. The nose and chin area come into existence as a result of this pushing backward. This front mandibular projection makes no vital contribution to the human species. These are the results of the design of the uterus. The process of evolution process does not develop body organs which it does not use in natural circumstances. Evolution, at the most, keeps caducous organs that are left by the predecessor of a certain species. This front mandibular projection does not exist in any primate. It comes into being through uterus’s push on the incisors so that the embryo moves backwards.

All the ideas I have put forward here can be tested by the following experiment: We can implant a chimp embryo into a human uterus. We can support the development of this embryo in the human uterus through medicines and medical techniques. One of these techniques is to take the cells which specialized for forming the placenta that are lined up in single file on the human zygote of 4-5 days and to remove the cells producing the placenta out of the chimp zygote. The cells that will generate the chimp are taken and put into the cells that will produce the placenta taken from the human. When this mixed zygote is implanted into human uterus, the transplant rejection is prevented for this placenta will be a human placenta. When the birth is realized in these conditions, the newborn’s body will be hairy, and the hands and feet will be like those of a chimp but the head will be rounded and the volume of the head will be greater. Among other things, the nose and front mandibular projection will be extended and the jaw will become smaller. The pressure made by human uterus from the front will transform the jaw from a U to V shape. The result is that the living species we have acquired is Australopithecus. Both the uterus and the embryo within it have evolved over 4-5 my. More and more growth of the skull’s volume has to be expected. For the available uterus has taken its final shape. We will not acquire a skull in an amazing greatness but it will be bigger than chimp’s skull (350 cc) in all conditions (Kaynak, 1983, 2007, 2015, 2017).

Additionally, the chimp’s embryo will complete its development in the human uterus with the head above the body for seven months and turning upside down, the body above the head in the last two months, as it is the case with a human baby. The chimp will be born with its face not turned to the mother’s abdomen but similar to a human newborn, with its face towards mother’s back. Most probably, it will be born without synostosis, but with fonticulus as in a human new-born baby (Kaynak, 2015, 2017).

3- The Leap of Mental Threshold

The present day chimp, with its 350 cc brain, can tear down a tree branch and attack its enemies with it. It can also pick up a stone and throw it at its enemy. When the predator cheetah approaches the capuchin monkeys of the Brazilian forests, they climb the cliffs and roll down an avalanche of rocks and stones, forcing the cheetah to retreat. These monkeys can also make use of stones in a sophisticated manner in order to break coconuts. Chimps can also make use of a stone for cracking fruit seeds. In a way, both primates use the stone as a tool as well as a weapon. Chimps make use of thin twigs for hunting termites and collecting honey from beehives. If a chimp with its 350 cc brain can do such things, one should wonder what its capabilities would be if it had a 500 cc brain.

After chasing its enemy, the chimp throws a stick at it but does not say to itself: “This stick has served me effectively; I’d better keep it for another occasion”. If the chimp had a brain of 500 cc, would it say, “I’d better keep this stick and even improve it”? The chimp may not think so with a brain of 500 cc, not even with a 550 cc or 600 cc brain but there will be a time and a brain capacity that such a thought will occur.

This is the critical point, which I have labelled as the mental threshold. Once this mental threshold was crossed, the hominid that held a stone in one hand and a stick in the other had the courage to intrude into the hunting zone of any animal including the worst predator.

When it reached the capacity to influence his prey as well as his predator from a distance with the help of sticks and stones, the hominid departed from the rift in order to colonize the world. After crossing this mental threshold, the hominid became cognizant of his nakedness, became self-aware, and came to understand that sticks and stones could be used as weapons. The human mind is the result of the incredible adaptive response given by the embryo to the vertical body posture (Kaynak, 2015, 2017).

REFERENCES

Blechschmidt, E. (2003) The stages of human development before birth. United States: Saunders (W.B.) Co Ltd.

Blechschmidt, E. (2004) The ontogenetic basis of human anatomy: a biodynamic approach to development from conception to birth. United States: North Atlantic Books.

Darwin, C. (1996) The Origin of Species, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Darwin, C. (2002) The Descent of Man. With an Introduction by John Tyler Bonner and Robert M. May, New Jersey In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Chichester, West Sussex.

Hardy, A. (1960) Was man more aquatic in the past? New scientist, 7(642), 5

Johanson, D. and Edey, M.A. (1960) The beginnings of humankind. United States: Simon and Schuster

Kaynak, O. (1983) Bir Memeli Embriyonu Diğer Bir Tür Memelinin Rahmine Yerleştirilip Büyütülürse Nasıl Bir Sonuç Alınır? Evcil Dergisi, 5, 26-28.

Kaynak, O. (2008) Bu Günkü Halimize Nasıl Dönüştük? Cumhuriyet Bilim Teknoloji, 1129, 2.

Kaynak, O. (2010) İnsan Evriminde Dik Duruşun ve Beyin Büyümesinin Nasıl Gerçekleştiğine Dair Yeni Bir Hipotez, IV. National Biological Anthropology Symposium Abstract Booklet p.2, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey, 4-6 November.

Kaynak, O. (2012a) Neden Dik Yürüme, Büyük Beyin ve Kılsız Beden ? yazısı üzerine eleştirel notlar. Bilim ve Gelecek, 96, 91.

Kaynak, O. (2012b) An Analysis of Australopithecus Sediba from a New Viewpoint: Mentis Eversionis, 18th Congress of the European Anthropologial Assocition, Human Evolution and Dispersals, Absract Booklet, p:50, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey, 3-6 September.

Kaynak, O. (2013a) Processes and Mechanisms of Human's Evolution Towards the Intelligent Living Being, Biological Mechanisms in Evolution, Gordon Research Conferences, Stonehill College, Easton, MA, 2-7 June.

Kaynak. O. (2013b) Doğal Seçilim İki Ayaklılığı ve Büyük Beyni Seçiyor mu?, V. National Biological Anthropology Symposium Abstract Booklet, 17, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey, 24-25 October.

Kaynak, O. (2013c) İnsan Evriminde Üç Sıçrama, Cumhuriyet Bilim Teknoloji, 1391, 13.

Kaynak, O. (2014) The Three Leaps in Human Evolution, 19th European Anthropological Association Congress, Anthropology: Unity in Diversity, Abstract Booklet, Serie 23, , Vol.3, p. 91, ISSN: 2074-8132, Lomonosov MSU, Moscow, Russia, 25-29 August.

Kaynak, O. (2015) Major Transitions in Human Evolution Discussion Meeting, The Royal Society, London, UK, 22-23 October.

Kaynak, O. (2017) The Three Leaps in Human Evolution. In: Molecular Mechanisms in Evolution, Gordon Research Conferences, Easton, MA, 11-16 June 2017.

Mayr, E. (1998) This is biology: the science of the living world. Unted States: Harward University Press

Rosenberg, K. R. and Trevathan, W. R. (2001) The evolution of human birth. Scientific American, 285(5), 72-77.

Stewart, A. M. E. et al. (2008) Fishing in Macaca fascicularis: a rarely observed innovative behavior. International Journal of Primatology, 29(2), 543-548.

Trevathan, W. R. (2011) Human birth: An evolutionary perspective. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.

PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS OF THE DESCENT OF MAN

Sunday, 15 October 2017

AICSSH & AICMSE 2017 (OXFORD) Conference Proceedings

IAPA & SSHB 2017 Symposium

Saturday, 7 October 2017

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[PDF] THREE LEAPS IN HUMAN EVOLUTİON

[DOC] PROCESSES AND MECHANISMS OF HUMAN'S EVOLUTION TOWARDS THE INTELLIGENT LIVING BEING

[DOC] AN ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALOPITHECUS SEDIBA FROM A NEW VIEWPOINT:''MENTIS EVERSIONIS''

Thursday, 5 October 2017